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The People’s Republic of China has initiated a research and development project in thorium molten-salt reactor technology. Its ultimate target is to investigate and develop a thorium based molten salt nuclear system in about 20 years. This would be followed by a 10 MW demonstrator reactor and a MW pilot reactors.

An expansion of staffing has increased to as of China plans to follow up the experiment with a MW version by Kirk Sorensen, former NASA scientist and Chief Nuclear Technologist at Teledyne Brown Engineering , has been a long-time promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors. He first researched thorium reactors while working at NASA, while evaluating power plant designs suitable for lunar colonies.

Material about this fuel cycle was surprisingly hard to find, so in Sorensen started “energyfromthorium. In , Sorensen coined the liquid fluoride thorium reactor and LFTR nomenclature to describe a subset of molten salt reactor designs based on liquid fluoride-salt fuels with breeding of thorium into uranium in the thermal spectrum. In , Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company that initially intends to develop 20—50 MW LFTR small modular reactor designs to power military bases; Sorensen noted that it is easier to promote novel military designs than civilian power station designs in the context of the modern US nuclear regulatory and political environment.

Thorium Energy Generation Pty. Limited TEG was an Australian research and development company dedicated to the worldwide commercial development of LFTR reactors, as well as thorium accelerator-driven systems. As of June , TEG had ceased operations. It was formally launched at the House of Lords on 8 September Weinberg , who pioneered the thorium molten salt reactor research. Thorcon is a proposed molten salt converter reactor by Martingale, Florida. It features a simplified design with no reprocessing and swappable cans for ease of equipment replacement, in lieu of higher nuclear breeding efficiency.

On 5 September , The Dutch Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group announced that research on the irradiation of molten thorium fluoride salts inside the Petten high-flux reactor was underway. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Type of nuclear reactor that uses molten material as fuel. See also: Thorium-based nuclear power. Main article: Breeder reactor. Main article: Rankine cycle. Main article: Brayton cycle. This section may be too technical for most readers to understand.

Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts , without removing the technical details. April Learn how and when to remove this template message. Nuclear Engineering and Design. San Francisco, CA. Huffington Post. ZME Science. Retrieved 12 August Discover Magazine.

Retrieved 22 January Pittsburgh Press. Retrieved 18 October The Tuscaloosa News. American Scientist. Archived from the original PDF on 8 December Nature Geoscience. Bibcode : NatGe Argonne’s Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy. Argonne National Laboratory. Mountain View, CA. Archived from the original PDF on 12 December Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Nuclear Science and Engineering. Archived from the original on 4 June Physics Today. Bibcode : PhT ISBN Archived from the original on 16 September Retrieved 12 November World Nuclear Association. March Retrieved 28 June The most common isotope formed in a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu isotope, formed by neutron capture from U followed by beta decay , and which yields much the same energy as the fission of U Well over half of the plutonium created in the reactor core is consumed in situ and is responsible for about one third of the total heat output of a light water reactor LWR.

August Nuclear Applications and Technology. November Energy Conversion and Management. June Mechanical Engineering. Retrieved 24 October Idaho National Laboratory. Archived from the original PDF on 8 August Retrieved 4 May Enel Green Power. Archived from the original PDF on 29 October Retrieved 7 April S2CID When the conversion ratio is greater than 1, it is often called the “breeding ratio.

For example, commonly used light water reactors have a conversion ratio of approximately 0. Pressurized heavy water reactors PHWR running on natural uranium have a conversion ratio of 0. The doubling time is the amount of time it would take for a breeder reactor to produce enough new fissile material to replace the original fuel and additionally produce an equivalent amount of fuel for another nuclear reactor.

This was considered an important measure of breeder performance in early years, when uranium was thought to be scarce. However, since uranium is more abundant than thought in the early days of nuclear reactor development, and given the amount of plutonium available in spent reactor fuel, doubling time has become a less-important metric in modern breeder-reactor design.

Burnup is an important factor in determining the types and abundances of isotopes produced by a fission reactor. Breeder reactors, by design, have extremely high burnup compared to a conventional reactor, as breeder reactors produce much more of their waste in the form of fission products, while most or all of the actinides are meant to be fissioned and destroyed.

In the past, breeder-reactor development focused on reactors with low breeding ratios, from 1. A ‘breeder’ is simply a reactor designed for very high neutron economy with an associated conversion rate higher than 1.

In principle, almost any reactor design could be tweaked to become a breeder. An example of this process is the evolution of the Light Water Reactor, a very heavily moderated thermal design, into the Super Fast Reactor [26] concept, using light water in an extremely low-density supercritical form to increase the neutron economy high enough to allow breeding. Aside from water cooled, there are many other types of breeder reactor currently envisioned as possible. These include molten-salt cooled , gas cooled , and liquid-metal cooled designs in many variations.

Almost any of these basic design types may be fueled by uranium, plutonium, many minor actinides, or thorium, and they may be designed for many different goals, such as creating more fissile fuel, long-term steady-state operation, or active burning of nuclear wastes.

Extant reactor designs are sometimes divided into two broad categories based upon their neutron spectrum, which generally separates those designed to use primarily uranium and transuranics from those designed to use thorium and avoid transuranics. These designs are:. Fission of the nuclear fuel in any reactor produces neutron-absorbing fission products. Because of this unavoidable physical process, it is necessary to reprocess the fertile material from a breeder reactor to remove those neutron poisons.

This step is required to fully utilize the ability to breed as much or more fuel than is consumed. All reprocessing can present a proliferation concern, since it extracts weapons-usable material from spent fuel. Early proposals for the breeder-reactor fuel cycle posed an even greater proliferation concern because they would use PUREX to separate plutonium in a highly attractive isotopic form for use in nuclear weapons. Several countries are developing reprocessing methods that do not separate the plutonium from the other actinides.

For instance, the non-water-based pyrometallurgical electrowinning process, when used to reprocess fuel from an integral fast reactor , leaves large amounts of radioactive actinides in the reactor fuel. All these systems have modestly better proliferation resistance than PUREX, though their adoption rate is low. In the thorium cycle, thorium breeds by converting first to protactinium, which then decays to uranium If the protactinium remains in the reactor, small amounts of uranium are also produced, which has the strong gamma emitter thallium in its decay chain.

Similar to uranium-fueled designs, the longer the fuel and fertile material remain in the reactor, the more of these undesirable elements build up. In the envisioned commercial thorium reactors , high levels of uranium would be allowed to accumulate, leading to extremely high gamma-radiation doses from any uranium derived from thorium. These gamma rays complicate the safe handling of a weapon and the design of its electronics; this explains why uranium has never been pursued for weapons beyond proof-of-concept demonstrations.

While the thorium cycle may be proliferation-resistant with regard to uranium extraction from fuel because of the presence of uranium , it poses a proliferation risk from an alternate route of uranium extraction, which involves chemically extracting protactinium and allowing it to decay to pure uranium outside of the reactor.

No fission products have a half-life in the range of a— ka Breeding fuel cycles attracted renewed interest because of their potential to reduce actinide wastes, particularly plutonium and minor actinides.

The volume of waste they generate would be reduced by a factor of about as well. While there is a huge reduction in the volume of waste from a breeder reactor, the activity of the waste is about the same as that produced by a light-water reactor. In addition, the waste from a breeder reactor has a different decay behavior, because it is made up of different materials. Breeder reactor waste is mostly fission products, while light-water reactor waste has a large quantity of transuranics.

After spent nuclear fuel has been removed from a light-water reactor for longer than , years, these transuranics would be the main source of radioactivity.

Eliminating them would eliminate much of the long-term radioactivity from the spent fuel. In principle, breeder fuel cycles can recycle and consume all actinides, [4] leaving only fission products. As the graphic in this section indicates, fission products have a peculiar ‘gap’ in their aggregate half-lives, such that no fission products have a half-life between 91 years and two hundred thousand years. As a result of this physical oddity, after several hundred years in storage, the activity of the radioactive waste from a Fast Breeder Reactor would quickly drop to the low level of the long-lived fission products.

However, to obtain this benefit requires the highly efficient separation of transuranics from spent fuel. If the fuel reprocessing methods used leave a large fraction of the transuranics in the final waste stream, this advantage would be greatly reduced.

A reactor whose main purpose is to destroy actinides, rather than increasing fissile fuel-stocks, is sometimes known as a burner reactor. Both breeding and burning depend on good neutron economy, and many designs can do either. Breeding designs surround the core by a breeding blanket of fertile material. Waste burners surround the core with non-fertile wastes to be destroyed. Some designs add neutron reflectors or absorbers. All current fast neutron reactor designs use liquid metal as the primary coolant, to transfer heat from the core to steam used to power the electricity generating turbines.

FBRs have been built cooled by liquid metals other than sodium—some early FBRs used mercury , other experimental reactors have used a sodium – potassium alloy called NaK. Both have the advantage that they are liquids at room temperature, which is convenient for experimental rigs but less important for pilot or full-scale power stations.

Lead and lead-bismuth alloy have also been used. Another fuel option is metal alloys , typically a blend of uranium, plutonium, and zirconium used because it is “transparent” to neutrons. Enriched uranium can also be used on its own.

Many designs surround the core in a blanket of tubes that contain non-fissile uranium, which, by capturing fast neutrons from the reaction in the core, converts to fissile plutonium as is some of the uranium in the core , which is then reprocessed and used as nuclear fuel. Other FBR designs rely on the geometry of the fuel itself which also contains uranium , arranged to attain sufficient fast neutron capture.

For this reason ordinary liquid water , being a moderator and neutron absorber , is an undesirable primary coolant for fast reactors. Because large amounts of water in the core are required to cool the reactor, the yield of neutrons and therefore breeding of Pu are strongly affected. Theoretical work has been done on reduced moderation water reactors , which may have a sufficiently fast spectrum to provide a breeding ratio slightly over 1. This would likely result in an unacceptable power derating and high costs in a liquid-water-cooled reactor, but the supercritical water coolant of the supercritical water reactor SCWR has sufficient heat capacity to allow adequate cooling with less water, making a fast-spectrum water-cooled reactor a practical possibility.

The type of coolants, temperatures and fast neutron spectrum puts the fuel cladding material normally austenitic stainless or ferritic-martensitic steels under extreme conditions. The understanding of the radiation damage, coolant interactions, stresses and temperatures are necessary for the safe operation of any reactor core.

Both are Russian sodium-cooled reactors. One design of fast neutron reactor, specifically conceived to address the waste disposal and plutonium issues, was the integral fast reactor IFR, also known as an integral fast breeder reactor, although the original reactor was designed to not breed a net surplus of fissile material.

To solve the waste disposal problem, the IFR had an on-site electrowinning fuel-reprocessing unit that recycled the uranium and all the transuranics not just plutonium via electroplating , leaving just short half-life fission products in the waste. Some of these fission products could later be separated for industrial or medical uses and the rest sent to a waste repository.

The IFR pyroprocessing system uses molten cadmium cathodes and electrorefiners to reprocess metallic fuel directly on-site at the reactor. Breeder reactors incorporating such technology would most likely be designed with breeding ratios very close to 1. A quantity of natural uranium metal equivalent to a block about the size of a milk crate delivered once per month would be all the fuel such a 1 gigawatt reactor would need.

Another proposed fast reactor is a fast molten salt reactor , in which the molten salt’s moderating properties are insignificant. This is typically achieved by replacing the light metal fluorides e. LiF, BeF 2 in the salt carrier with heavier metal chlorides e. As of , the technology is not economically competitive to thermal reactor technology, but India , Japan, China, South Korea and Russia are all committing substantial research funds to further development of fast breeder reactors, anticipating that rising uranium prices will change this in the long term.

Germany, in contrast, abandoned the technology due to safety concerns. India is also developing FBR technology using both uranium and thorium feedstocks. The advanced heavy water reactor AHWR is one of the few proposed large-scale uses of thorium. The third and final core of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station 60 MWe reactor was a light water thorium breeder, which began operating in It operated at MWt, generating 60 MWe and ultimately produced over 2. After five years, the core was removed and found to contain nearly 1.

The liquid fluoride thorium reactor LFTR is also planned as a thorium thermal breeder. Liquid-fluoride reactors may have attractive features, such as inherent safety, no need to manufacture fuel rods and possibly simpler reprocessing of the liquid fuel.

From it became the subject of renewed interest worldwide. Like many aspects of nuclear power, fast breeder reactors have been subject to much controversy over the years. In the International Panel on Fissile Materials said “After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries”. In Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, breeder reactor development programs have been abandoned.

There are some past anti-nuclear advocates that have become pro-nuclear power as a clean source of electricity since breeder reactors effectively recycle most of their waste. This solves one of the most-important negative issues of nuclear power. In the documentary Pandora’s Promise , a case is made for breeder reactors because they provide a real high-kW alternative to fossil fuel energy. AP [57]. Kavali [58]. Mahi Banswara. CANDU [55]. Bangka Belitung. Unfinished; restart planned.

Enrico Fermi. Alto Lazio. Fukushima Daiichi. Fukushima Daini. Operational [61]. Operation suspended under review [62]. Operation suspended. Operation suspended restart approved [63]. Operational [64]. Operational [65]. Operation suspended restart approved [66]. Operation suspended restart approved [67]. Operation suspended restart approved [68].

Laguna Verde. Magnox Pu -production. Shut down [ citation needed ]. LWR [69]. Planned [69]. Unfinished; restart planned [71]. Choczewo [72][73]. Akademik Lomonosov. Under construction suspended [76]. Kola II [76][77]. Kostroma [76][78]. Kursk II. Leningrad II [81]. June [82]. MPEB 1 [83][84][85][86].

Nizhny Novgorod. Novovoronezh II. South Urals. Smolensk II [89][90]. Cancelled [][]. Planned []. South Ukraine. Bradwell B. Calder Hall.

Dungeness A. Dungeness B. Hinkley Point A. Hinkley Point B. Hinkley Point C. Hunterston A. Hunterston B. Oldbury B. Sizewell A. Sizewell C. Winfrith []. Wylfa Newydd. Arkansas Nuclear One. Beaver Valley. WH 3-loop DRY. Big Rock Point []. Blue Castle Project []. Browns Ferry.

Calvert Cliffs. Carbon Free Power Project []. Comanche Peak. Connecticut Yankee. Crystal River 3. Diablo Canyon. Donald C. Edwin I. Fort Calhoun. Furthermore, ITER’s type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon.

Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution no gaseous CO 2 , SO 2 , or NO x by-products are produced.

According to researchers at a demonstration reactor in Japan, a fusion generator should be feasible in the s and no later than the s. Japan is pursuing its own research program with several operational facilities that are exploring several fusion paths. Proponents of ITER contend that an investment in research now should be viewed as an attempt to earn a far greater future return and a study of the impact of ITER investments on the EU economy have concluded that ‘in the medium and long-term, there is likely to be a positive return on investment from the EU commitment to ITER.

Supporters of ITER emphasize that the only way to test ideas for withstanding the intense neutron flux is to subject materials experimentally to that flux, which is one of the primary missions of ITER and the IFMIF, [] and both facilities will be vitally important to that effort. It is nearly impossible to acquire satisfactory data for the properties of materials expected to be subject to an intense neutron flux, and burning plasmas are expected to have quite different properties from externally heated plasmas.

Furthermore, the main line of research via tokamaks has been developed to the point that it is now possible to undertake the penultimate step in magnetic confinement plasma physics research with a self-sustained reaction. Solar , wind , and hydroelectric power all have very low surface power density compared to ITER’s successor DEMO which, at 2, MW, would have an energy density that exceeds even large fission power stations.

Safety of the project is regulated according to French and EU nuclear power regulations. In , the French Nuclear Safety Authority ASN delivered a favorable opinion, and then, based on the French Act on Nuclear Transparency and Safety, the licensing application was subject to public enquiry that allowed the general public to submit requests for information regarding safety of the project.

The whole installation includes a number of stress tests to confirm efficiency of all barriers. The whole reactor building is built on top of almost seismic suspension columns and the whole complex is located almost m above sea level.

Overall, extremely rare events such as year flood of the nearby Durance river and 10,year earthquakes were assumed in the safety design of the complex and respective safeguards are part of the design. Between and , the project has generated 34, job-years in the EU economy alone. Claessens, Michel. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

International nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject. For the type of medieval circuit court, see Eyre legal term. For the computer science terminology, see Iterator. See also: Nuclear fusion. Nuclear technology portal Energy portal Science portal France portal.

Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 12 September The Economist. London, England. Retrieved 20 March Iter originally, “International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor”, but now rebranded as Latin, thus meaning “journey”, “path” or “method” will be a giant fusion reactor of a type called a tokamak.

Fusion for Energy. Retrieved 5 August ISBN Nuclear Fusion. Bibcode : NucFu.. ISSN Archived from the original on 26 April Bloomberg Businessweek.

Retrieved 25 November The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 August Retrieved 18 August New York, USA. Nuclear Engineering International. London, England: Reuters. World Economic Forum. Physics Today. Popular Science.

The Future of Fusion Energy. Singapore: World Scientific. S2CID Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics. New Scientist. Retrieved 13 September Retrieved 24 October Fusion Engineering and Design. London, England: World Nuclear News. ITER Newsline. The Week. Retrieved 29 March London, England: Springer Nature Group.

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Braams and P. Bristol; Philadelphia: Iop ; C Bibcode : nfhc. Global Policy. Retrieved 28 March Nature Reviews Physics. China Daily. Korea joins fusion energy research project”. Power Engineering. BBC News. Retrieved 5 May Canberra, Australia: Australian National University. World Nuclear News. London, England: World Nuclear Association. The Irish Times. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Times Trust. ABC News. Retrieved 15 May